{Need quote related to 1640s}

1648, the title of a near future work in the Measuring History series, also stands as  a work about 1399Neptune-Pluto1892, a span where the world shed medieval values for modern ones. 1648, the year when the Peace of Westphalia ushered in a tradition of written diplomacy that laid the foundation for all modern agreements between international bodies. While ending the Eighty and Thirty Years simultaneously, the agreement also obviated the Church, an institution that had predominated for 500 years at minimum. That the Age of Reason began, the English Civil raged as natural philosophers came to terms with Copernicus, Kepker and Galileo points to a time when simplicity disappeared. 
	1648, the midpoint of 1399Neptune-Pluto1892, shares quadurate coordinates with 1398-1399, 1567-1571, 1815-1821 and 1892-1893 as seen on the wave below.

	Connections between these periods retain commonality in all directions. The roots of discontent that led the end of the political reach of the Church ran deep circa 1399. The Great Schism, where three popes ultimately claimed authority led to an erosion in confidence and evidenced to all that papal power called to earthly urges over heavenly calling to a ridiculous. That a Medici would reach the papal throne speaks volumes for the true motivations for those who sought the role. Jon Wycliffe and Jan Huss spoke to willing audiences, including many in power who resented the need not only to pay, but to collect the tithes that funded the church hierarchy. The memory Jan Huss remained in the forefront a little over a century later when an elector to the Holy Roman Empire prevented Martin Luther from certain death-at-the-stake by making sure he refused audience in Rome.

	The chart for 1397, except for Saturn, fairly well holds for the entire 1390s decade. As well as the burgeoning Neptune-Pluto conjunction, Uranus opposed both Neptune and Pluto. We should know that outer quadrate alignments (0°/360°, 90°, 180°, 270°) occur only a few times a century, even less for Neptune and Pluto; intersections of outer planet quadrate alignments thus occur very rarely. For
future use note the following list: 

Uranus, Neptune, Pluto Alignments	Saturn Alignments	
Uranus opposite Neptune
Uranus opposite Pluto
Neptune conjunct Pluto	Saturn conjunct Uranus
Saturn opposite Neptune
Saturn opposite Pluto  	

	As we move through 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 we will see similar lists of Uranus to Pluto, Uranus to Neptune and Neptune to Pluto intersections. Bear in mind, however, that 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 does not represent a typical Neptune-Pluto wave, most do not contain quadrate alignments among the three outer planets in such short time proximities. 

1560s

By the 1560s Europe had moved past a point of no return, mostly, but not completely related to the role of the Church. Though neither side knew for certain, Protestanism’s tentacles reached so far into society, its influence could not be untangled. The Church response, Counter-Reformation, failed to help since it never sought to reform the corruption that had eroded its moral authority. Instead its message came out as a pledge to redouble its efforts to defeat ‘heresy’. This set the stage for hardened positions that only grew more resolute, a condition reflected by a chart cast for 1567. During this year, Spain, champion of the Catholics, pushed by ever increasing debt, chose to push its possession and ally into enmity. How and why this pushed Spain from dominant force to dependent nation also speaks to why certain nations excelled while others floundered. Important to this work, outer planet activity accurately reflects extant conditions, while also demonstrating that planet activity does not determine destinity, Instead, they represent  all available options, highlighting the paths open to all participants. Spain could have taken a less strident position, compromised with the Netherlands and, ultimately, found a more structured manner to conduct its finances. Instead it stuck to a its traditon forged by years of fighting religious wars against Islam. 
	We can extend this theme in many directions and see the same result, played uniguley according to national/regional tendencies and conditons. The too be British Isles in the 1560s stood in deep debt, held and insecure postion against Spain, had been shut out of international trade by papal edict, pondering its future under a queen whose notions of marriage remained known only to her. France throughout the 1560s erupted in civil wars ostensibly over religious freedoms. The Netherlands we already know to be at dispute with its dynastic partner in Spain. Germany still struggled with its religious strife, so often driven by territorial desires and strategic conveniences. Poland and the Ukraaine united in a clumsy pact to remain strong against the growing strengths of the Muscovites. Crossroad best summarizes this time in Europe.
	From here on the balance of power in the region and, later, around the globe, shifted dramatically. England under Elizabeth found a way to make a large dent in the Iberian monopoly on oceanic trade. Who would have thought then that in 1568 that England would defeat the great Spanish Armada twenty years later. The Dutch followed a similar path, both going on to establish colonies where Spain had a few fortifications. On this basis England, then Great Britain would go on to establish an ‘empire on which the sun never set’. Spain, a first adopter who pumped more gold and silver into the global economy than all the treasure found in the world up to that combined, fell under the inflation it had created. Without a central treasury, an economic plan, an educated populace, a strong merchant class or a centralized defense, Spain (and Portugal) could not leverage the riches it imported efficiently enough to advance equally with her competetors. At the crossroads, Spain remained mired in its traditions while others moved on. 
	Why the same did not happen to France, embroiled in civil conflict, much of the time coincident with the regency of a foreigner,a women no less and a Medici to boot, speaks to the legacy of Charlemagne and the advantage held as a region with a strong economy, based on rich soils and relatively homogeneous population. Paris’ role as a cultural role also played to its strengths. Later we will see, when we examine the French Revolution, where the tendency to rest on the larels of tradition led to that crisis. Spain came 1399Neptune-0-1892 with charcteristics shaped by years of the infitada. France, entered that period a dominant force, despite inner turmoil and its on-again-off-again war with the English. At 1399Neptune-90-Pluto1892, despite its religious wars, still exhibited its dominance of its neighbors. England, shaped by its battles with France, in the 1560s fully established its Protestant roots, setting the conditions where it could take a more secular approach to governance just as the trend shifted hard in that direction. Each of these examples enforces the notion that lower square represent decision points. Destiny of all the soon-to-be-nations took dramatic turns toward how they ultimately would end up, but the destinies came through decision, not by chance. Yes, the tendencies of each nation also played roles, but none could say that tendency always followed form. 
	From the distance of time we can easily see that if Charles and then Philip had reigned in their crusades to attend to fundamental flaws in its economic model, but we should be charitable with our criticism. Charles inherited one of the most vast empires when he became King of Aragon and Castille and Emperor Charles of the Hapsburghs. With it came the vast riches of the overseas possessions...and a centuries hardened position to defend Pope and religion. Charles was Flemish and spoke Flemish. Though Spain was his gem. the font of riches, he know little of its culture. He always remained an outsider, eager to leverage Spanish inheritance, but never a native interested in developing Spain itself. Spanish characteristics and desires enforced this circumstance. Spanish men sought the glory over the crusade over the ultimately more stable, but less glorious, life in the trades. That the Spanish gained hold over half of the globe by papal decree fed into this tendency. The risk of an ocean voyage and the unknowns of the New World often came with the reward of vast riches even the most wealthy in the homeland could dream of. A conquistodor could command vast tracks of land at an authority to the crown that was not practically enforceable. Adventurers could be kings over tiny domains, a prospect unavailable in their homelands.

The 1640s

As far as turning points go, the 1640s has to rank in the top five. Changes across Europe then still reverberate into our time. Since the Thirty Years War, ended by the Peace of Westphalia, involved every European entity,except the soon to be British Isles, easilyy marks that year, as a turning point, But since we also know what happened during the English War, with certanity we can know that all of Europe emerged from that year a permanently alltered amalgamation. For the most part, the nobility had agreed to disagree on religiouus matters, an act underlined by the Nuncio’s refusal to sign, leaving it, perhaps, as the only hold out. The English fairly well signalled to all parties that the monarchy could no longer hold singular authority to anything. Though the change may seem subtle, the end of the religious brought in a major change in how and why Europe’s rulers governed.
	The change from one mode to another proves even more noticeable in other areas. 1648, almost to the year marks the beginning of the Age of Reason that later morphed into the Enlightnent. Forces previously held back partically by Church docttine, no released new energy in all directions. Descartes, who died in 1648, had given “permission” to question  all, even Plato and Aristotle. Galileo and Kepler had shown that even the Ancients did not have all the answers. But the ancients also taught that we should combine reason with what we learn through our senses to reach our own conclusions.

Quadrate Alignment List & Their Implications

Between 1637 and 1650 the four outer planets appeared in a higher than usual number of quadrate alignments. Saturn in 1637 could be found upper square (90*0 from Saturn. 

[1637 chart]

In 1642 it fell into a t-square between Neputne and Pluto, who essentially opposed each other throughout the decacde.

[1642 chart]

Between 1647 Saturn opposed Uranus and Neptune, both conjunct one another, and was conjuct Pluto that also lay opposite the Uranus/Neptune pair.

[1647 chart]

The comprehensive list, 1637-1650 reads chronologically as:

Saturn lower square Uranus: 1637
Saturn lower square Neptune: 1642
Saturn upper square Pluto” 1642
Neptune opposite Pluto: 1642-1649
Saturn opposite Uranus: 1647
Saturn opposite Neptune: 1647-1648
Saturn conjunct Pluto 1648
Uranus conjunct Neptune 1649

It should remind readers of the previous quadrate alignments of 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 when the amount of quadrate alignments appear i similar patterns. It should also remind us of all the issues that coincided with the quadrarte alignments that had occurred up to the decade in question: 1399 and 1572. At 1399, the seed of dissent agaisnt the Church had taken root with the doubt brought on by Black Death and with the Great Western Schism. By the next Neptune-Pluto alignment (1399Neptune-90-Pluto1892: 1572) the religious question had matured beyond the half settled Peace of Augsburg of 1555 that permitted princes to deem whether or not their provinces could practice Catholicism or Lutheranism to whether Anabaptism or Calvinism should prevail, This last question remained unsettled until the Peace of Westphalia. We can also see that the religious question had evolved into questions related to government, economy and politics, particularly with the Eighty Years War between the Lowlands and Spanish, begun near 1399Neptune-90-Pluto1892: 1572 that also ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
	The same characteristics emerge in the other direction when we look at 1399Neptune-270-Pluto1892: 1819. Many of the same issues arise, altered by time but still related to events related to these quadrate alignments. The Congress of Vienna, Napoleon’s death and the quite obvious emergence of industrialism, a signal to the ostensible influence of the French Revolution, all share the timeline of 1399, 1572 and 1648 and share similarities in the quality of many outer planet quadrate alignments appearing almost simulataneously. Among the most potent symbols of new developments tied to this timeline come with the Church ending its Inquisition in 1819, the emergence of the United States from the war in 1812 (and its step into controversy with Missouri Compromise of 1821) and rapid proliferation of Protestant sects that exploded from this time forward. I will cover ~1821 alignments next, but it would be shortsighted how 1648 relates to this period as well.

Uranus and Neptune

Uranus and Neptune aligned in Sagittarius between 1648 and 1649. Previous to this they appeared conjunct around 1308 and 1478, respectively. After 1648-49 they aligned in 1821 and again around 1992. A look at each of these dates and each Uranus-Neptune wave points to other times when historical turning points coincide with outer planet alignments. 1308 falls conspicuously near the time Babylonian Papacy began. 1478 points to a time when European Renaissance reached one of its few climaxes. We should also note it as a time like 1648 when the European map was redrawn in a major way: Spain united under Isabel and Ferdinand, the Low Countries broke free from the French, and England came near the end of their War of the Roses that settled their line of heritage that helped them emerge from obscurity on the edge of Europe into a credible power. We should also note the Copernicus (1473) and Martin Luther (1483) , both major influences on events of 1648, came into the world within five years on either side of the 1478 Uranus-Neptune conjunction. 

[Copernicus’ Chart]

Martin Luther’s Birth and 95 Theses Chart side by side].

How 1478 traces forward to 1648 comes easily as one can see how the Renaissance, the acceptance of the printing press and Greek scholarship all lead to elements found prominent in 1648, Descartes, a father of the Age of Reason with out much effort appears as an intellectual successor of Erasmus, the crown of Christian Humanism. The Age of Reason pays allegiance to question everything attitude of the Renaissance. 

The Eighteen Teens

The Axial Age Connection

An Overall Theme

The way all parts of 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 connect to one another thematically makes a potent case that Neptune-Pluto waves define history as well or better than divisions in mainstream history. With that said, a definition of a theme, onus any astrology, seems warranted. Each Neptune-Pluto wave carries a distinct theme and the one for 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 proves quite distinct. A look at the last complete Neptune-Pluto really puts this one and our time from a more thorough perspective.

	A few distinct themes stand out:

•	Globalization
Europeanisation
Organized Government
Industrialism
Secularization

	At the end each one these subsections, the reader will see a breakdown of each of these themes along the quadurate alignments. This will show not only how humans progressed through these alignments, but also how each alignment relates to one another thematically. This provides another way to see how history mirrors the outer planets, while also providing material for later discussion.
	
Globalization: We think of globalization as part of our time, but we need to know that our planet had reached a level of almost complete globalization by the 1570s. An example of this can seen with the Chinese common-man eschewing the emperor's printed currency for Peruvian gold that arrived in China via Spanish galleon in Manila from Mexico City. Of course, the process then rose more organically and much less consciously than today's version. That occurrence of it, however, played no less an important role since it carried a momentum that no one could reverse. Undoubtedly it set the foundation for today's global and political landscape and set a course to the interdependent world in which we now live. [MORE]
	To a different degree cultures around the world contributed to and changed the planet in a way that had not happened for thousands of years. Tulips from Turkey made their way to Holland (and caused an economic scandal). Potatoes from South America turned into an important source of nutrition in Europe and in places that Europeans maintained ports. This development foreshadowed a challenge of interdependence wherein no region really can sustain its populations without imports from  the outside. [MORE]

1399: We can safely conclude that very few in any peoples had global access at this time. We do see preview of what came later since Henry the Navigator began sponsor trips around Africa beginning in 1398 {cite evidence}. On the other side of the world huge Chinese armadas made journeys to as far as the east African coast. Though the emperor ultimately decided that these expeditions were not worth the investment, they presaged future efforts.

1571: Again, few clues that point to future industrialism appear at this juncture.

1648: No smokestacks, steam power or technology associated with a mechanized world show forth here, but we should not discount the major changes that led to the later outcome that converged and sprawled out from the time of the mid-point of 1399Neptune-Pluto1892 wave. The decay in Church influence opened the way to the Age of Reason on which industrialism built its foundation. Galileo and Descartes died during this decade. Liebniz and Newton entered the world. From here Louis XIV encouraged the mercantile class at the expense of nobility. Across the Channel, a king beheaded signaled that Parliament held equal power. This body would later  obtain the ability to create the economic conditions and zoning on which factories later flourished. If you have trouble envisioning how rapidly the change took place, consider that the Thirty Years War, which ended in 1648, represents the last major conflict fought largely without  gunpowder weapons. Fifty years hence thereabout, steam-powered mining began and the march toward industry turned into an inexorable force.

1821: Paradoxically, the Industrial Revolution was well established and in his infancy. Luddites had already railed against mechanized monsters. Communities in Britain became company towns. The need for constant production helped put children into the labor pool. Yet, steamships, railroads, telegraphs, electric trams, internal combustion engines, radios and automobiles stood in the wings. Very little of the world, mostly Britain, held industrial holdings and supported it. But the message that this approach represented the future was lost on very few. Recognition probably best represents the word we can use for the period as so many economies saw that industry offered previously unforeseen opportunity.[MORE]

Europeanization: Europeanization came as a subset of a globalized planet, but we should also see it as a distinct process. If you can find a book, now out of print, titled Ecological Imperialism, take the opportunity to read it. [I was lucky enough to find it in the Seattle Public Library]. In this work Alfred Crosby describes how the ecology of planet changed under the constant onslaught of European invasions. Little realized by many, Europeans brought more than themselves. They transported their world little by little with little or no intent. They brought pigs, horses, seeds, plants and diseases to environs and other cultures that little or no defense to thwart them. Long-horn cattle, for example, were descendants of European ones gone wild. Wild boars found in America descended from pigs Columbus and crew left in the Caribbean. These, the men and horses carried seeds on their hides, clothes or excrement over and over again as more of those that came after Columbus sought riches. From the distance of time, these developments may seem inconsequential, but to those native to the Americas, a changed landscape surely felt like yet another blow to the only lifestyle known for a few thousand years.
	We should also not discount the advantages this gave Europeans. Without knowing it, many of them moved into places that had been naturalized for them. Instead of needing to learn new environments, Europeans could literally step of boats into lives at least somewhat familiar to them, giving them advantages over cultures adapting to new environments for the first time. Additionally, most of non-European cultures had to deal with death and dying brought on by disease for which they had no immunity. Many anthropologists now conjecture that as much as 90% of North American natives died from smallpox, measles and other conflagrations most Europeans could easily recover from.[MORE]
	Beyond these physical changes Europeans eventually muscled or influenced in enough places around the world that many chose a join them not fight approach, the most extreme example came in the form of Japan who aggressively adopted western ways after the Meijing Revolution of 1868. Most, however, did not prove as successful as the Japanese, particularly Egypt and Turkey whose experience often consisted of taking on loans they could never have paid. This gave Europeans great leverage in these places to a degree where most non-European nations still struggle to compete. Ironically, this influence included the European concept of nationalism to the extent that colonies found the inspiration to throw out the colonizers in favor of national initiative. Though this push to independence occurred during the current Neptune-Pluto wave, the roots laid down their path during 1399Neptune-Pluto1892. This dynamic will take many years to play out so it will be interesting thread to follow.

1399: Even Europe was barely Europeanized at this point. As a world power it stood second to China and the Islamic world. Its territories appeared as a hodgepodge of dynastic arrangements that could at any explode into confusing conflagrations. Its one unifying political force, the Church, mired itself in the Great Western Schism where popes backed by different factions vied for the throne in Rome. In the 
long run this close competition contributed to turning Europe into a force {cite Guns, Germs & Steel}. 

1571: 
1648:
1821:

Organized Government: One of the biggest developments came in the form of governments based on ideas and concepts rather than genetics and family lineages. This represents a significant break from the past. When we realize the newness of this concept it helps put our post-modern in a much clearer perspective. As much as we may respect the past, we should realize that what passed for government then actually proved to be quite immature and ineffective. The path from then to now tells us quite a bit about why we go through much of what we do now and what we should know adopt to present reality. Though the Greeks and Romans developed government structures that held some similarities to ours, they held only some of the sophistication of modern ones. Whatever lessons they held faded with the fall of Rome.
	The remnants of those cultures turned back to their tribal underpinnings and grew upon them. We need remember that the feudal system came about as a way to control the nobility. The knights cared little for governance and often preyed on defenseless citizens. It is for this reason that the peasantry often favored the monarchy since that institution could rally nobility into causes that distracted them away from rape and pillage. (The Crusades is a great example of this dynamic in action). Indeed, the story of the march to organized government must include how the monarchy and merchant classes often came together at the expense of nobility. Additionally, we should also recognize how religion had outgrown the many faceted role it played in Europe and elsewhere. Through 906Neptune-Pluto1398 into the next Neptune-Pluto wave, the Church played the role of arbiter between cultures, marketplace, educator and health-provider among others. In simpler times with lower population densities these roles served all parties, but as times and populations grew more complex, people began to bristle under ecumenical demands. The details of how this change appears elsewhere in this chapter, but we only need to look at the difference in France between 1399 and 1799. 
Around the earlier date, the French crown stood at the center of the Great Western Schism. But no matter how badly the situation deteriorated then all parties sought to bring the Church into a form of normalcy. Around 1799, the Church held no more political or economic might. While many had objected to how revolutionaries had self-appropriated Church property, the Church stood defenseless against the onslaught.

1399: This time stands as rife with examples of how immaturely governments, if you can call them that, administered their duties. Most strikingly we can point to the Hundred Years War, which stood at its interim. On the English side, Richard II, who sought peace with the French, struggled in his own land to maintain control. In 1399, after varying quarrels with the parliament, he left the door open for Henry IV to force Richard's abdication. The prehistory of all this went through many twists and turns prior to this event—at one point Richard held widespread popularity. At times he showed a great deal of guile, but other times displayed a capricious temper. He held extravagant tastes and also tended to switch sides to suit his needs, a behavior that the parliament could few as threatening. His ultimate downfall came when he miscalculated the strength of his enemies and the loyalty of his friends. In the end this shows that even at this early date the power of the English parliament, but also the instability of the monarchy. Keep in mind here that this monarchy divided its attention between its English hierarchy and its desire to control the French crown. We see how relative to other powers of the time that the English crown held a great deal of power, but ignoring parliament held grave consequence.
	On the other side of the Channel, the mad king acted as a pawn among warring factions that also included English actors. [MORE]
1571: In many ways 
1648:
1821: Despite a continent wide revolution, governments continued to struggle to meet modern demands. France meekly returned to a monarchy, albeit a constitutional one. Leaders walked fine lines 
between rousing nationalism, controlling their populations and granting voting power. Across the Atlantic, the USA served as model, inspiration and safety valve. At the same time the Monroe Doctrine obviated thoughts that Old World powers held sway over the New World, signaling an independence movements across South America. Where we can see maturity came in the international sphere of diplomacy. Despite the uncertainty leaders held about their peoples, Europe reached a level of détente  that lasted nearly a century. This did not mean that European powers did not compete against one  another, but they did so through commercial ventures and through respective colonies. Statesmanship, born during the Peace of Westphalia negotiations had matured into legitimate and funded diplomatic corps to varying degrees.
	Another dynamic is on display here: commercialism. No longer did business needs play second fiddle to government demands. Instead, nations sought to gain advantage through commerce, with the most extreme example coming in the form of how the British Navy essentially lay out the vanguard to business ventures across the planet. [MORE]
 
Industrialism

1399: We see few signs of industrialism at this point of history. With a bit of a twisted explanation we can see how the Great Western Schism led to discoveries that fostered the Industrial Revolution but this we tackle elsewhere. We do see the foundation of the 'putting out system' that led to factories. Additionally, we see waterwheels and similar technology, but we see very few clues that civilizations would lead to the industrially based world we now take for granted. We should note though that about fifty years from this time, the printing press, a system that encouraged mass production, would enter the world and lead us toward a heavily mechanized planet.
1571: 
1648:
1821:

Secularization

1399:
1571: 
1648:
1821: